Have A Closer Look: America Goes to War

December vii, 1941: A Day That Will Alive in Infamy

America's isolation from war ended on December 7, 1941, when Japan staged a surprise set on on American military installations in the Pacific. The most devastating strike came at Pearl Harbor, the Hawaiian naval base where much of the US Pacific Fleet was moored. In a 2-hour assault, Japanese warplanes sank or damaged eighteen warships and destroyed 164 aircraft. Over 2,400 servicemen and civilians lost their lives.

America's Reaction

"No matter how long it may take u.s.a. to overcome this premeditated invasion, the American people in their righteous might will win through to absolute victory."
-- President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Dec eight, 1941


Though stunned by the events of December 7, Americans were too resolute. On Dec eight, President Roosevelt asked Congress to declare war against Japan. The declaration passed with simply one dissenting vote. Three days after, Deutschland and Italy, allied with Japan, alleged state of war on the Usa. America was now drawn into a global war. It had allies in this fight--nearly chiefly Great United kingdom and the Soviet Marriage. Merely the chore the nation faced in Dec 1941 was formidable.

Joining the Military

The United States faced a mammoth job in December 1941. Sick-equipped and wounded, the nation was at war with three formidable adversaries. Information technology had to prepare to fight on 2 distant and very different fronts, Europe and the Pacific.

America needed to quickly enhance, train, and outfit a vast military strength. At the same time, it had to observe a way to provide material aid to its hard-pressed allies in Not bad Britain and the Soviet Marriage.

Meeting these challenges would require massive government spending, conversion of existing industries to wartime production, construction of huge new factories, changes in consumption, and restrictions on many aspects of American life. Government, industry, and labor would need to cooperate. Contributions from all Americans, young and erstwhile, men and women, would be necessary to build up what President Roosevelt called the "Armory of Democracy."

In the months afterward Pearl Harbor, the nation swiftly mobilized its human and material resources for war. The opportunities and sacrifices of wartime would change America in profound, and sometimes unexpected, ways.

Recruitment

The primary job facing America in 1941 was raising and grooming a credible military strength. Concern over the threat of war had spurred President Roosevelt and Congress to approve the nation's outset peacetime military typhoon in September 1940. By Dec 1941 America'south military had grown to nearly ii.2 1000000 soldiers, sailors, airmen, and marines.

America's war machine consisted largely of "citizen soldiers",men and women drawn from civilian life. They came from every state in the nation and all economical and social strata. Many were volunteers, just the majority,roughly 10 million,entered the military through the draft. Most draftees were assigned to the army. The other services attracted enough volunteers at showtime, but eventually their ranks also included draftees.

Barracks Life

Upon their arrival at the training camps, inductees were stripped of the freedom and individuality they had enjoyed as civilians. They had to adapt to an entirely new way of living, one that involved routine inspections and strict military machine conduct, as well every bit rigorous physical and gainsay training. They were given identical haircuts, uniforms, and equipment, and were assigned to spartan barracks that afforded no privacy and piddling room for personal possessions.

The Draft

By tardily 1942 all men anile eighteen to 64 were required to register for the draft, though in practise the system concentrated on men under 38. Eventually 36 million men registered. Individuals were selected from this manpower pool for examination by one of over 6,000 local typhoon boards. These boards, comprised of citizens from individual communities, determined if a man was fit to enter the armed services. They considered factors like the importance of a homo's occupation to the war attempt, his wellness, and his family situation. Many men volunteered rather than wait to be drafted. That way, they could choose their branch of service.

Potential servicemen reported to military induction centers to undergo physical and psychiatric examinations. If a man passed these exams, he was fingerprinted and asked which blazon of service he preferred, though his consignment would exist based on the military'due south needs. After signing his consecration papers, he was issued a serial number. The final step was the administration of the oath. He was now in the military. Afterward a short furlough, he reported to a reception center before being shipped to a preparation camp. New recruits faced more than medical examinations, inoculations, and bent tests.

Preparation

The training camp was the forge in which civilians began to get military men and women. In the training camps new servicemen and women underwent rigorous concrete conditioning. They were drilled in the basic elements of war machine life and trained to work as part of a team. They learned to operate and maintain weapons. They took tests to determine their talents and were taught more specialized skills. Paratroopers, antiaircraft teams, desert troops, and other unique units received additional didactics at special preparation centers.

The Home Front end

"I need not repeat the figures. The facts speak for themselves.... These men could non take been armed and equipped as they are had it not been for the miracle of production hither at habitation. The production which has flowed from the country to all the battlefronts of the world has been due to the efforts of American business, American labor, and American farmers, working together as a patriotic team."
--President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Navy Day spoken communication, October 27, 1944

Raising an armed forcefulness was just part of America's war try. That forcefulness had to be supplied with the uniforms, guns, tanks, ships, warplanes, and other weapons and equipment needed to fight. With its vast human and material resources, the The states had the potential to supply both itself and its allies. Only first the American economic system had to be converted to war production.

The war production endeavor brought immense changes to American life. As millions of men and women entered the service and product boomed, unemployment virtually disappeared. The need for labor opened up new opportunities for women and African Americans and other minorities. Millions of Americans left home to take jobs in war plants that sprang upwardly effectually the nation. Economic output skyrocketed.

The war try on the "Home Forepart" required sacrifices and cooperation. "Don't you know there's a state of war on?" was a common expression. Rationing became office of everyday life. Americans learned to conserve vital resources. They lived with price controls, dealt with shortages of everything from nylons to housing, and volunteered for jobs ranging from air raid warden to Ruby-red Cross worker.

Rationing and Recycling

"Nutrient for Victory"
To conserve and produce more food, a "Food for Victory" campaign was launched. Eating leftovers became a patriotic duty and civilians were urged to grow their own vegetables and fruits. Millions of "Victory gardens," planted and maintained by ordinary citizens, appeared in backyards, vacant lots, and public parks. They produced over 1 billion tons of food. Americans canned food at home and consulted "Victory cookbooks" for recipes and tips to make the virtually of rationed goods.

"Get in Practise or Do Without"
State of war product created shortages of disquisitional supplies. To overcome these shortages, war planners searched for substitutes. One fundamental metallic in express supply was copper. It was used in many state of war-related products, including assault wire. The military needed millions of miles of this wire to communicate on battlefields.

To satisfy the war machine's demands, copper substitutes had to be found to apply in products less important to the nation'south defense. The U.s.a. Mint helped solve the copper shortage. During 1943 it fabricated pennies out of steel. The Mint too conserved nickel, another important metal, by removing it from five-cent coins. Substitutions like these helped win the product battle.

"Do With Less, And so They'll Take More than"
The military needed more guns and armament to do its job. Information technology had to be fed. The Regular army'south standard One thousand ration included chocolate bars, which were produced in huge numbers. Cocoa production was increased to make this possible.

Saccharide was another ingredient in chocolate. It was also used in chewing gum, another part of the K ration. Sugar cane was needed to produce gunpowder, dynamite, and other chemical products.

To satisfy the military's needs, sugar was rationed to civilians. The government also rationed other foods, including meat and coffee. Local rationing boards issued coupons to consumers that entitled them to a limited supply of rationed items.

"Salve Waste product Fat for Explosives"
Ammunition for rifles, artillery, mortars, and other weapons was one of the nearly important manufacturing priorities of Globe War 2. A fundamental ingredient needed to make the explosives in much armament was glycerine.

To help produce more ammunition, Americans were encouraged to save household waste fat, which was used to make glycerine. Other household goods,including rags, paper, silk, and string,were also recycled. This was a abode front project that all Americans could join.

Salvage for Victory

Canteens are a standard part of armed services equipment. Millions were produced during the war. Most were made of steel or aluminum, metals which were also used to make everything from ammunition to ships. At times, both metals were in brusque supply.

To encounter America's metal needs, scrap was salvaged from basements, backyards, and attics. Old cars, bed frames, radiators, pots, and pipes were only some of the items gathered at metal "scrap drives" around the nation. Americans too collected safe, tin, nylon, and paper at save drives.

"Share Your Cars and Spare Your Tires"
America's military needed millions of tires for jeeps, trucks, and other vehicles. Tires required prophylactic. Prophylactic was besides used to produce tanks and planes. But when Japan invaded Southeast Asia, the Us was cut off from one of its chief sources of this disquisitional raw product.

America overcame its rubber shortage in several ways. Speed limits and gas rationing forced people to limit their driving. This reduced vesture and tear on tires. A synthetic safety industry was created. The public besides carpooled and contributed rubber scrap for recycling.

Dollars for Defense force
To assist pay for the war, the government increased corporate and personal income taxes. The federal income tax entered the lives of many Americans. In 1939 fewer than 8 million people filed private income tax returns. In 1945 nearly fifty million filed. The withholding organisation of payroll deductions was another wartime evolution. The government also borrowed money by selling "war bonds" to the public. With consumer goods in short supply, Americans put much of their money into bonds and savings accounts.

Mobilizing the Economy

America's economy performed astonishing feats during World War 2. Manufacturers retooled their plants to produce state of war appurtenances. But this alone was non plenty. Soon huge new factories, built with regime and private funds, appeared effectually the nation. Millions of new jobs were created and millions of Americans moved to new communities to make full them. Annual economic production, as measured by the Gross National Product (GNP), more than than doubled, rising from $99.seven billion in 1940 to nearly $212 billion in 1945.

Production Miracles In industry after industry Americans performed product miracles. One story helps capture the scale of the defense force effort. In 1940 President Roosevelt shocked Congress when he proposed building 50,000 shipping a year. In 1944 the nation made virtually double that number. Ford'due south massive Willow Run bomber factory alone produced nearly i aeroplane an hour by March 1944.

To reach increases like this, defence force spending jumped from $1.5 billion in 1940 to $81.5 billion in 1945. Past 1944 America led the world in arms production, making more than plenty to fill its armed forces needs. At the same time, the U.s. was providing its allies in Great Britain and the Soviet Spousal relationship with critically needed supplies.

Civilian Defense
Many Americans volunteered to defend the nation from enemy bombing or invasion. They trained in first aid, aircraft spotting, bomb removal, and fire fighting. Air raid wardens led practise drills, including blackouts. By mid-1942 over 10 one thousand thousand Americans were civil defence force volunteers.

Though America's mainland was never invaded, in that location were dangers offshore. Several Japanese submarines were spotted near the Pacific coast, and German U-boats patrolled the Atlantic declension, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Caribbean Sea. At least 10 US naval vessels were sunk or damaged by U-boats operating in American waters.

A Workforce Changed by War: Unemployment Disappears
The state of war virtually ended unemployment in America. The need for workers led manufacturers to hire women, teenagers, the aged, and minorities previously excluded past discrimination from sectors of the economy. Plentiful overtime work contributed to rising wages and increased savings.

Armed forces and economic expansion created labor shortages. To fill the gap, government and industry encouraged women to enter the workforce. Though well-nigh working women continued to labor in more traditional employment similar waitressing and teaching, millions took amend-paid jobs in defense factories.

African Americans and other minorities also took high-paying industrial jobs previously reserved for whites. In 1941, black labor leader A. Philip Randolph threatened to organize a protest march on Washington, D.C. if the regime didn't bar racial discrimination in defense plants with authorities contracts. Faced with this threat, President Roosevelt banned such discrimination and created the Fair Employment Practices Commission (FEPC) to investigate bias charges.

Millions of women, including many mothers, entered the industrial workforce during the war. They found jobs in especially large numbers in the shipbuilding and shipping industries. "Rosie the Riveter" became a popular symbol of patriotic womanhood. Though defence force jobs paid far more than than traditional "female" occupations, women were still ofttimes paid less than men performing comparable work. Moreover, at war'due south end, women were expected to leave the factories to make way for returning male veterans.

Higgins Boats

Higgins Industries designed and built ii basic classes of military craft.

The start was landing arts and crafts, constructed of woods and steel and used to ship fully armed troops, low-cal tanks, field artillery, and other mechanized equipment and supplies to shore. These boats helped brand the amphibious landings of Earth War Two possible.

Higgins likewise designed and manufactured supply vessels and specialized patrol arts and crafts, including high-speed PT boats, antisubmarine boats, and dispatch boats.

LCVP (Landing Craft, Vehicle, Personnel)
The LCVP was the most famous landing craft designed and produced by Higgins Industries. It could land soldiers, and even jeeps, on a beach. LCVPs were used in North Africa, Europe, and the Pacific during the war.

From the Eureka...
The LCVP (Landing Craft, Vehicle, Personnel), the all-time-known landing craft designed past Andrew Higgins, evolved from a boat he created earlier the war for use in the swamps and marshes of Louisiana. Trappers and oil companies needed a rugged, shallow-bottomed arts and crafts that could navigate these waters, run aground, and retract itself without dissentious its hull. Higgins adult a boat that could perform all these tasks: a spoonbill-bowed craft he called the Eureka. Over time he modified and improved his craft and establish markets for information technology in the The states and abroad.

...to the LCP(Fifty)
During the 1930s Higgins tried to interest the U.S. Navy in adapting his shallow-draft Eureka for use as an amphibious landing craft. The navy showed petty interest, merely Higgins persisted. After a long struggle, he finally secured a government contract to build modified Eurekas for military use. The new boat was called the LCP (Landing Craft, Personnel) and, later, the LCP(L) (Landing Craft, Personnel, Large). In its most advanced class the LCP(50) measured 36 feet in length. Information technology could transport men from ships offshore direct onto a beach, and then retract itself, turn, and caput back to sea.

The LCVP (Landing Craft, Vehicle, Personnel) was developed because the U.Southward. Marines needed a boat capable of transporting vehicles to shore. Higgins adjusted the LCP(L) to meet this requirement. He replaced the LCP(Fifty)'s rounded bow with a retractable ramp. The new craft was tested for the start time on May 26, 1941, on Lake Pontchartrain. It carried a truck and 36 Higgins employees safely to shore. The LCVP became the military machine's standard vehicle and personnel landing arts and crafts. Thousands were in service during the war.

New Orleans" Home of the Higgins Boats
"If Higgins had not designed and built those LCVPs, we never could have landed over an open embankment. The whole strategy of the war would have been different."
--General Dwight D. Eisenhower

The city of New Orleans made a unique and crucial contribution to America's state of war attempt. This was the dwelling of Higgins Industries, a small boat company endemic by a flamboyant entrepreneur named Andrew Jackson Higgins. The story of Higgins' function in the war is piffling known today, but his contribution to the Centrolineal victory was immeasurable.

Globe War II presented Centrolineal state of war planners with a tactical dilemma--how to make large amphibious landings of armies confronting defended coasts. For America this was a particularly thorny problem, since its armed forces had to mount amphibious invasions at sites ranging from Pacific atolls to North Africa to the coast of French republic.

Higgins' contribution was to pattern and mass-produce boats that could ferry soldiers, jeeps, and fifty-fifty tanks from a ship at sea straight onto beaches. Such craft gave Allied planners greater flexibility. They no longer needed to set on heavily dedicated ports before landing an assault force. Higgins' boats were used in every major American amphibious operation of World War Two. His achievements earned him many accolades. The greatest came from General Dwight D. Eisenhower, who called Higgins "the man who won the state of war for us."

From the Bayou to the Battlefront
Before World War II Andrew Higgins operated a small boatyard, building workboats designed to operate in the shallow waters of Louisiana's bayous. During the 1920s and 1930s America's military machine began exploring ways to brand amphibious landings. Higgins became involved in this effort, adapting designs for shallow-draft boats he had developed for peacetime uses. His company created amphibious attack craft capable of shuttling men and equipment rapidly and safely from ship to shore. When the war came, business concern boomed. Higgins built new factories with mass product lines and employed thousands of workers. He fifty-fifty opened a training school for boat operators.

New Orleans Naval Giant During World War Ii Higgins Industries grew from a small business operating a single boatyard into the largest individual employer in Louisiana. The company turned out astounding numbers of boats and ships. In September 1943 the United states of america Navy had 14,072 vessels. Of these, 8,865 had been designed and built by Higgins Industries.